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Reading Toolkit
by
Victoria Sweet
Reading Toolkit
by Victoria Sweet
GLOSSARY
Background Knowledge
The information and experiences students already have before reading a text. Teachers build on this foundation to help students connect new ideas with what they already know, which makes comprehension easier.
Comprehension
Comprehension means being able to make sense of what you read and understand its main ideas. It includes linking details together, drawing conclusions, and using what the reader learned from the text.
Decoding
Decoding is the skill of turning written letters or letter groups into their corresponding sounds and blending them to read a word. It’s a critical part of phonics instruction and helps readers approach unfamiliar words with confidence
Figurative Language
Figurative language uses comparisons and imagery—such as similes, metaphors, and personification—to convey meaning beyond the literal words. Recognizing these expressions helps students appreciate tone, theme, and author’s craft in literature and content texts.
Fluency
Reading fluency is the ability to read text accurately, at an appropriate pace, and with proper expression (such as tone, rhythm, and emphasis). Fluency bridges word recognition when decoding and comprehension, making reading feel natural and sustaining engagement.
Imaginative/Literary Text
Imaginative or literary texts include stories, poems, and plays created to entertain, explore feelings, and share human experiences. They use elements like character, setting, plot, and theme to engage readers and build empathy and creativity.
Informational/Expository Text
Informational or expository texts present facts, explanations, and arguments about real‑world topics. Features such as headings, diagrams, captions, and glossaries help students locate information and learn new content efficiently.
Literacy Knowledge
Literacy knowledge is awareness of how print and texts work, including book handling, genre features, and purposes for reading and writing. It supports students in choosing appropriate strategies for narratives, informational texts, and everyday reading tasks.
Phonics
Phonics refers to the structured connection between graphemes, the symbols used in writing, and phonemes, the sounds those symbols stand for. Phonics instruction enables students to decode unfamiliar words, apply spelling patterns, and build fluency. Effective phonics teaching includes both blending sounds to read words and segmenting words into sounds for spelling, creating a foundation for lifelong literacy.
Phonological Awareness
Phonological awareness is the skill of identifying, breaking apart, and working with the sound patterns that make up spoken words. It includes identifying rhymes, clapping syllables, isolating beginning sounds, and segmenting words into phonemes. This skill set is entirely auditory and does not require print. Because phonological awareness is a critical precursor to phonics, strong development in this area supports later success in reading and spelling.
Print Concepts
Knowing how print works—like holding a book the right way, reading from left to right and top to bottom, understanding spaces between words, and recognizing front/back covers—enables children to approach text confidently and meaningfully. These “rules of print” are foundational for early literacy development.
Language Structure
Language structure is the organized system of sounds, words, and sentence patterns that governs how language works. Understanding these building blocks helps students decode, express ideas clearly, and comprehend what they read and hear.
Literal language
Literal language communicates exactly what the words state without extra layers of meaning. Students need this for following directions, understanding procedures, and reading factual statements accurately.
Science of Reading
The Science of Reading is a comprehensive body of interdisciplinary research that explains how the brain learns to read. Drawing on findings from cognitive psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, and education, this research confirms that reading is not an innate skill but one that must be explicitly taught. It highlights the need for systematic, evidence-based instruction in phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension to ensure that all students, including those with disabilities, become proficient readers.
Scarborough’s Reading Rope
In the early 1990s, Hollis Scarborough created the Reading Rope, a model that shows how proficient reading grows as two key strands—word recognition and language comprehension—are woven tightly together. Word recognition involves skills such as phonological awareness, decoding, and the ability to identify words by sight, whereas language comprehension draws on elements like prior knowledge, vocabulary development, understanding of syntax, and reasoning with language. As students strengthen each strand, the “rope” becomes tighter, symbolizing fluent reading with comprehension. This model helps teachers identify whether a student’s challenges are rooted in decoding or meaning-making.
Semantics
Semantics is the study of meaning in words, phrases, and sentences. It enables students to use context, multiple‑meaning words, and precise vocabulary to interpret and convey ideas accurately.
Sight Word Recognition
Sight word recognition refers to instantly recognizing common or irregular words without needing to sound them out—words like “the,” “was,” or “said.” This skill supports smoother reading and allows students to focus more on understanding text.
Syntax
Syntax is the rule system for arranging words to create well‑formed sentences (for example, English often follows subject–verb–object order). Teaching syntax helps students write clearer sentences, recognize sentence types, and understand how word order affects meaning.
Text-to-Self, Text-to-World, and Text-to-Text Strategies
A set of connection-making strategies that help readers relate text to their own lives, the larger world, and other texts. Text-to-Self links the story to personal experiences, Text-to-World connects it to real-world events or issues, and Text-to-Text relates it to themes, characters, or ideas in other books.
Verbal Reasoning
Verbal reasoning is thinking with language to infer, compare, sequence, and explain ideas. Students use it to draw conclusions, justify answers with evidence, and make sense of complex texts and questions.
Vocabulary
The collection of words a student understands and uses. Strong vocabulary helps students decode new words, make sense of texts, and express ideas more clearly. Vocabulary is often grouped into four types—listening, speaking, reading, and writing—which together support effective communication and learning.
Topic 1: The Science of Reading: Phonological Awareness
Levels of Phonological Awareness
Reflection:
The Importance of the Science of Reading for Special Education Teachers
Special education teachers work with diverse learners, many of whom have significant challenges in literacy development. Even if direct reading instruction is not their primary responsibility, having a deep understanding of the Science of Reading, Scarborough’s Reading Rope, and phonological awareness is essential for supporting student success.
The Science of Reading as a Foundation
The Science of Reading provides evidence-based insight into how the brain processes written language. Decades of research confirm that explicit and systematic instruction is necessary for reading acquisition (Moats, 2020). For special education teachers, this knowledge is crucial in diagnosing reading difficulties, designing targeted interventions, and collaborating with colleagues to align instruction with cognitive processes. Understanding that reading requires both decoding and comprehension helps ensure that interventions remain balanced.
Scarborough’s Reading Rope as a Diagnostic Tool
Scarborough’s Reading Rope (2001) offers a framework for analyzing a student’s strengths and weaknesses in reading. The lower strands emphasize word recognition skills such as phonological awareness and decoding, while the upper strands emphasize comprehension. Special education teachers can use this model to identify whether a student struggles more with decoding or with meaning-making. For example, a student who decodes fluently but fails to comprehend may need vocabulary and background knowledge support, while a student with weak phonemic awareness may require foundational decoding instruction.
Phonological Awareness and Early Reading Achievement
Studies have repeatedly demonstrated that a child’s phonological awareness is a powerful indicator of future reading success (National Reading Panel, 2000). When students enter upper grades without mastering these skills, they often face persistent reading difficulties. Special education teachers who recognize phonological deficits can recommend targeted interventions, such as blending, segmenting, or substitution activities. This proactive approach supports students who might otherwise fall further behind.
Meeting the Needs of All Readers
Even in collaborative or supportive roles, special education teachers advocate for instruction that benefits all learners. Strategies like explicit vocabulary instruction, structured phonics programs, and repeated reading are supported by research (Kilpatrick, 2015) and can be shared with general education colleagues. During IEP meetings, special educators can explain how specific accommodations and interventions align with best practices, strengthening collaboration with families and staff.
Professional Experience
In my role as a resource teacher, I have seen the impact of applying these frameworks. One seventh-grade student with a specific learning disability made measurable progress when I integrated phonological awareness activities with comprehension strategies. This dual emphasis—reflecting Scarborough’s model—allowed the student to improve both decoding accuracy and understanding of text. The experience reinforced the value of using research-based practices to guide instruction.
Conclusion
Although special education teachers may not always serve as the primary reading instructors, their understanding of the Science of Reading, Scarborough’s Reading Rope, and the levels of phonological awareness is indispensable. These frameworks empower teachers to diagnose student needs, advocate for evidence-based interventions, and collaborate effectively with colleagues. Ultimately, grounding practice in research ensures that all students, regardless of disability, are given the opportunity to achieve literacy and thrive as confident, capable readers.
References
Kilpatrick, D. A. (2015). Essentials of assessing, preventing, and overcoming reading difficulties. Wiley.
Moats, L. C. (2020). Teaching reading is rocket science: What expert teachers of reading should know and be able to do. American Federation of Teachers.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 97–110). Guilford Press.
Topic 2: The Science of Reading: Word Recognition and Decoding
Reading Foundational Skills
Review of the Early Literacy Standards for Students in Grades K-3 in Arizona
Reflection:
Foundational reading skills—print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics, and fluency—operate in a highly interconnected way to support the development of proficient readers. These components are not isolated; rather, they build upon one another to create a progression toward comprehension. Print concepts provide the earliest framework for making sense of written language. Children first learn that print carries meaning, that words are separated by spaces, and that text moves from left to right across a page. Without this knowledge, young learners may lack the orientation needed to engage effectively with text, which undermines their ability to move into more advanced decoding and comprehension (Justice & Sofka, 2010).
Phonological awareness represents the next essential stage, as it allows students to hear, analyze, and manipulate the sounds of spoken words. This skill includes identifying rhymes, segmenting words into syllables, and blending phonemes to form complete words. When children develop strong phonological awareness, they are prepared to transition into phonics instruction (National Reading Panel, 2000). Conversely, students who struggle in this area often fail to establish a solid link between oral and written language. Research has shown that weaknesses in phonological awareness are among the strongest predictors of later reading difficulties, including dyslexia (Torgesen, 2004).
Phonics instruction then provides the systematic relationship between sounds and letters. Through explicit phonics teaching, children learn to decode unfamiliar words and build sight recognition of familiar ones. This is critical because it equips students with strategies to independently approach new vocabulary and text (Ehri, 2014). Students who do not acquire these skills often resort to guessing based on pictures or context. While this may produce momentary success, it fails to promote accurate decoding, limits vocabulary development, and diminishes comprehension over time.
Fluency serves as the bridge connecting word recognition to comprehension. Defined as reading with accuracy, speed, and appropriate expression, fluency allows readers to allocate their mental energy toward understanding meaning rather than laboring over each word. Students who lack fluency often experience frustration, avoid reading tasks, and miss valuable opportunities to expand their knowledge (Rasinski, 2012). Thus, fluency is essential to the transition from learning to read to reading to learn.
The consequences of not mastering these foundational skills in grades K – 5 can be profound, especially for diverse learners. Consider, for example, a student with dyslexia in second grade who continues to struggle with phonological awareness. Without early intervention, this student may fall further behind in decoding and experience persistent reading anxiety. A second case might involve a third-grade English language learner who has strong oral vocabulary in their native language but limited exposure to English print concepts. If teachers overlook the importance of explicitly teaching directionality and spacing, this student may develop gaps that hinder later fluency and comprehension. Finally, imagine a fifth-grade student with ADHD who demonstrates adequate phonics knowledge but struggles with sustained attention during reading. This student may decode accurately but lack the fluency necessary to read with confidence and understanding, leading to frustration and disengagement.
Effective teaching requires intentional, evidence-based approaches to support these learners. Multisensory activities—such as clapping out syllables or tracing letters while saying sounds—strengthen phonological awareness. Systematic phonics instruction ensures students consistently connect graphemes and phonemes. To build fluency, teachers can model expressive reading, engage students in repeated readings, and provide guided oral practice. These strategies not only improve skills but also promote confidence, motivation, and resilience in learners.
In sum, foundational reading skills provide the critical building blocks for literacy. By carefully and systematically teaching print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics, and fluency, teachers empower students to access text independently. When these skills are mastered together in the early grades, students are better positioned to comprehend complex materials, think critically, and develop a lifelong love for reading. Early intervention, especially for students with exceptionalities, is the difference between prolonged struggle and lasting academic success.
References
Ehri, L. C. (2014). Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.819356
Justice, L. M., & Sofka, A. E. (2010). Engaging children with print: Building early literacy skills through quality read-alouds. Guilford Press.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
Rasinski, T. V. (2012). Why reading fluency should be hot! The Reading Teacher, 65(8), 516–522. https://doi.org/10.1002/TRTR.01077
Torgesen, J. K. (2004). Avoiding the devastating downward spiral: The evidence that early intervention prevents reading failure. American Educator, 28(3), 6–19.
Topic 3: Reading Toolkit : Background Knowledge and Vocabulary
Part 2: Levels of Phonological Awareness
Reading Passage
Content in English Language Arts for Grades 4 - 8: Pythons Invade the Florida Everglades (ReadWorks)
Reflection
Research consistently shows that both background knowledge and vocabulary instruction are essential for strong reading comprehension in students across grades 4–8. Even if students can decode words, they may still struggle to understand meaning if they lack the necessary background knowledge or vocabulary. The provided articles highlight that comprehension is more than fluent decoding—it requires connecting prior knowledge with new information and understanding the meaning of key words in the text.
The Role of Background Knowledge
Background knowledge plays a major role in shaping comprehension outcomes. Students bring different levels of prior understanding to reading tasks, which influences how well they make sense of text. Neuman, Kaefer, and Pinkham (n.d.) found that children from different socioeconomic groups showed significant differences in story comprehension based on their prior knowledge. When this variable was controlled by using a novel text, the comprehension gap between groups decreased. This finding suggests that comprehension depends heavily on students’ ability to use domain knowledge to make inferences, clear up ambiguities, and build mental models of the text.
For older students, activating background knowledge becomes even more important as texts grow in complexity. Vaughn (n.d.) explains that activating prior knowledge helps students connect old and new material, anticipate what they will learn, and integrate ideas more deeply. If students lack knowledge or hold misconceptions, teachers must step in with scaffolds such as previews of key ideas, prerequisite reviews, or multimedia supports. In this way, background knowledge serves as the base upon which comprehension strategies rest, allowing students to connect new learning into an organized mental framework.
The Role of Vocabulary
Vocabulary knowledge is just as critical because words are the foundation of comprehension. According to WETA (n.d.), students cannot fully understand a text without knowing what most of the words mean. Vocabulary is built both indirectly—through conversations and reading—and directly, through structured instruction. Effective vocabulary teaching strikes a balance between these two approaches, exposing students to rich language experiences while also teaching strategies for breaking down word parts, using context, and understanding subtle meanings.
The Read Naturally article (n.d.) points out that vocabulary deficits often predict long-term comprehension struggles. This is especially clear during the “fourth-grade slump,” where students with weak vocabularies begin falling behind when texts shift toward more abstract and technical terms (Stahl, 2005; Chall, Jacobs, & Baldwin, 1990). Intentional instruction, such as teaching words in depth, promoting word consciousness, and giving students repeated exposure in different contexts, can prevent this decline and support long-term academic growth.
How They Work Together
Background knowledge and vocabulary work best when combined. I have found that as my students learn about a topic, they also encounter new words tied to that domain. At the same time, learning new vocabulary expands their ability to understand content more fully. For example, while reading Pythons Invade the Florida Everglades (ReadWorks, n.d.), students must know the meaning of terms like “invasive species” or “reclamation,” but they also need to link these words to prior knowledge of ecosystems and environmental issues. When both knowledge and vocabulary are taught, students can approach challenging texts with confidence.
Overall, comprehension is not a passive process but an active act of linking knowledge and vocabulary to text. Teachers who activate background knowledge and teach vocabulary deliberately give students the tools to think critically, engage more deeply, and apply information across subjects. Without these supports, students risk shallow understanding. With them, they gain the skills to comprehend, remember, and use information meaningfully.
References
​Chall, J. S., Jacobs, V. A., & Baldwin, L. E. (1990). The reading crisis: Why poor children fall behind. Harvard University Press.
Neuman, S. B., Kaefer, T., & Pinkham, A. (n.d.). Building background knowledge. Reading Rockets.
https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/background-knowledge/articles/building-background-knowledge
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Read Naturally. (n.d.). The importance of vocabulary development. Read Naturally. https://www.readnaturally.com/research/the-importance-of-vocabulary-development
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ReadWorks. (n.d.). Pythons invade the Florida Everglades. ReadWorks. https://www.readworks.org
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Vaughn, S. (n.d.). Secondary reading instruction (Part 1): Teaching vocabulary and comprehension in the content areas. IRIS Center. https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/sec-rdng1
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WETA. (n.d.). Basics: Vocabulary. Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/vocabulary
Topic 4: Language Structure, Literacy Knowledge, and Verbal Reasoning
Part 2: Strategies for Understanding Language Structure, Verbal Reasoning, and Literary Knowledge
Grade 7 English Language Arts Instructional Strategies Chart
Content Area: English Language Arts
Texts: Pythons Invade the Florida Everglades (ReadWorks) and Jean Craighead George’s The Everglades (1997)
Grade Level: 7
Reflection
As a 7th-grade English language arts teacher in a co-taught class, I see how important it is to use both informational (expository) and imaginative (literary) texts. When I use expository texts—like Pythons Invade the Florida Everglades—students connect with real-world information in science, history, or social studies. At the same time, literary texts like Jean Craighead George’s The Everglades (1997) build empathy, creativity, and emotional engagement. Using both kinds of texts helps students learn new content while also relating to it on a personal level.
Expository texts often bring in new ideas and vocabulary that grow students’ academic language (Mar, 2021). In contrast, literary texts have familiar story structures that make reading easier and more enjoyable. For example, George’s book explains ecological concepts through storytelling and imagery, which helps students picture the setting. When I combine genres, students learn to read for different purposes—whether to gather facts or reflect on ideas. This makes them stronger, more flexible readers.
Text structures also play an important role in reading comprehension. Expository texts often use patterns like cause–effect, problem–solution, or compare–contrast. Teaching students how to recognize these patterns helps them process information more effectively (Roehling, 2017). For example, showing them the “River of Grass” metaphor in an expository passage helps them visualize an ecological concept, while George’s story deepens their understanding through narrative detail.
Literary texts usually follow a story arc with setting, character, conflict, and resolution. These features help students track events and make inferences. Research shows that narratives, with their coherence and emotional impact, increase engagement and reading comprehension (Pickren et al., 2021). Using The Everglades alongside the factual passage allows students to make connections, such as linking the Everglades’ beauty and fragility to the threats described in the article.
I also use text structure instruction as an explicit instructional strategy. A meta-analysis shows that teaching text structure improves comprehension, especially when paired with graphic organizers (Bogaerds-Hazenberg et al., 2021). In my classroom, students use organizers to compare Pythons Invade the Florida Everglades with George’s The Everglades. They often say that these visuals help them remember details and explain their ideas more clearly.
This approach also supports balanced literacy instruction, which integrates reading and writing. When students read both genres and then write their own informational or narrative pieces, they learn structure and purpose. Research suggests that reading and writing rely on similar processes (Sedita, 2022), and I have seen my students grow as writers after analyzing texts before creating their own.
In conclusion, I believe that using both expository and literary texts is essential. Their different structures not only improve content understanding but also strengthen reading skills, engagement, and writing ability. Informational texts, with features like headings and diagrams, help students quickly find and organize facts. Literary texts guide them through characters and plots, which build inference skills and theme recognition. Exposure to both genres teaches students to adjust their reading strategies to different purposes. Over time, this flexibility prepares them to be effective readers across content areas.
References
Bogaerds-Hazenberg, S., et al. (2021). A meta-analysis on the effects of text structure instruction on reading comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.311
George, J. C. (1997). The Everglades. HarperCollins.
Mar, R. A. (2021). Memory and comprehension of narrative versus expository texts. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.673341
Pickren, S. E., et al. (2021). The contribution of text characteristics to reading comprehension. Reading and Writing, 34(5), 1275–1297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-020-10101-6
ReadWorks. (n.d.). Pythons Invade the Florida Everglades. ReadWorks. https://www.readworks.org
Roehling, J. V. (2017). Text structure strategies for improving expository reading. The Reading Teacher, 70(5), 533–543. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1590
Sedita, J. (2022). Teaching text structure to support writing and comprehension. Keys to Literacy.
https://keystoliteracy.com/blog/teaching-text-structure-to-support-writing-comprehension
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